by Philomena Njeri Mwaura |
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INTRODUCTION
Before discussing the use of power in African instituted churches, it is important to define the concept and its related notions.
In general, power refers to the capacity or ability to do something. At this level it may be used interchangeably with terms like force or strength. In the sociological context, power is the ability or the potentiality to influence the behaviour and thoughts of others. Power can be observed or experienced in people, objects and institutions. According to Max Weber, "power is the probability that one actor with a social relationship will be in a position to carry out [his or her] will despite resistance, regardless of the basis on which this probability rests." People with power know that they will be listened to: they do not hope that someone will listen to them. Power can be achieved or lost. It is resisted when it works for human downfall. Effective power, long-term power depends for its energy on three factors: the opportunity to make the rules, the right to sanction those who break them, and the means to control thought and transmit ideas.2
In this respect, it is important to make a distinction between power understood as sheer physical force or might and moral power (right). Physical power accomplishes its ends by mere force and it can be used for good or for evil. Moral power, on the other hand, is the right or the legitimate ability to make decisions in matters of social or religious significance. This right or legitimacy is what is called authority. It follows therefore that one can have power without authority but not vice versa. The sources of this authority can be social, political, religious or supernatural.
This article attempts to investigate and discuss the concept of power and how it is used in African instituted churches. It will begin by describing various forms of power and their application in society. It will then define African instituted churches, focussing on their administrative and charismatic power of healing. It will examine how power is used in some of these churches. It will conclude by indicating the proper use of power in churches in Africa.
VARIOUS FORMS OF POWER
The psychiatrist Rollo May identifies five kinds of power, namely, exploitative power, competitive power, manipulative power, nurturant power and integrative power.3 To these, we may add charismatic power which falls in the realm of religion. According to May, each type of power has a different end. Each of them emerges from a different worldview, has different centre, and is intent on control.
Exploitative power is the power that uses the other for selfish gain. This power is perceived in terms of duality. The purpose of exploitative power, whether brutal or benign, is to drain the other of whatever power the exploited might lay claim to, in order to advance the purposes of the exploiter. The relationship of slave and master falls into this category. In hierarchical systems, whether in church or society, one person or group of people is clearly in charge and everyone else in the system is subordinate.
Competitive power is power used for conquest. It is directed against others in order to defeat and subjugate them. This kind of power is directed at ensuring that someone is kept down in order to build someone else up. This power makes human value dependent on the devaluation of others. It implies, at least indirectly, that a person is only as good as far as others are inferior.
Manipulative power is a very subtle form of power for it uses indirect control to manage people. Manipulation distorts events or ideas in such a way that they cannot be seen clearly and objectively. Manipulators may provide information but will give only part of it. People are given half truths and only get to know the world from the point of view of the manipulator. This is a technique used to retain power in any situation. In the long run it is counter-productive
Nurturant power is power that works for the sake of the other. The purpose of nurturant power is to develop and enable the other so that members of a community can be strengthened by another's gifts. The goal of the nurturant leader is not to make others dependent: it is to empower them to act independently in order to enhance self-determination. This is also called "power within." It resides within the individual or group and represents internal strength. It is based on self-acceptance and self-respect which in turn extends to respect and acceptance of others as equals.
Integrative power is the power devoted to mutual concern. It works with others for the sake of the development of both parties. It is power experienced when a group tackles problems together and creates energy that is greater than the sum of its parts. It sets out to unify, synthesize and empower. It is power used to create a whole new world where relationships are formed out of both need and gift and no one is expected to lose.
It will be realised from the foregoing that of the five types of power described, only the last two are beneficial.
All types of power are found in varying degrees in social, political, economic and religious institutions. Perhaps the most pervasive of all types of power is that vested in religious institutions. Let us examine this kind of power. RELIGIOUS POWER
The idea of power is central to much religious experience. Religious power is associated with the experience of the sacred, hence the elements of awesomeness, authority or effectiveness. "Religious experience involves the total personality, intellectually, emotionally and deep institutional and symbolic structures"4 . Most communities have myths of origin which depict the sacred power that brought them into being. This power is said to permeate every aspect of reality. Everything that happens in the world is a unique demonstration of the creative power which(in most religions(is ascribed to God. In all religions there are a variety of symbols, rituals, persons and objects which are believed to manifest cosmic and sacred power.
According to Eliade Mircea "celestial symbols are an important part of many religions because they manifest cosmic power in such a way that humans can model their behaviour upon the orderly motions of heavenly bodies, thus tapping their power"5 Sacred power is also found in totemic animals, and is appropriated by religious functionaries such as priests, medicine persons, chiefs, kings, prophets/prophetesses, mediums, prophet-healers, faith-healers, etc.
Religious leaders in all churches, particularly charismatic ones, are believed to be anointed and chosen by God. Therefore, they are sought after to heal, to bless and to intercede to God on behalf of people. This power can sometimes lead to people actually worshipping these personalities, forgetting that they are instruments and not a power unto themselves. The headquarters of churches where leaders reside are sometimes thought to have a certain power in themselves and may become objects of pilgrimage.
Charismatic power is central in religious personages. Charisma, a term made popular by Max Weber, is the authority by which individuals are accorded status and power over others. Charisma has been linked to the idea of mana (impersonal power in the universe). A person with charisma, particularly a religious functionary, has character, unusual skills, great stature, or force. Such a person is seen as chosen by God and endowed with extraordinary powers, powers which they either they may be born with or may acquire at some point in their lives after an extraodinary religious experience.
Many founders of religions and churches are regarded as having such charisma. Jesus Christ, for example, is one such person. The New Testament speaks of the power of Jesus as son of God to heal, raise the dead, drive out evil spirits, forgive sinners, empower the downtrodden and teach and preach with authority. Leaders and adherents in Christian churches see themselves as servants of God, empowered to continue Jesus' mission on earth and hence to bring about the kingdom of God. The power of Jesus is not depicted in the Bible as manipulative, exploitative or competitive. It is nurturing, integrative and charismatic.
To what extent do leaders in the African instituted churches approximate the power of Christ in their leadership of the churches? This we will now examine. We shall begin by defining what these churches are, what their administrative structures are and see how their charismatic powers are manifested through healing.
WHO ARE THE AFRICAN INSTITUTED CHURCHES?
African Instituted churches6 are churches that have been established in Africa under African initiative in the last one hundred years. They have arisen partly by secession from former mission-founded churches, partly spontaneously around a charismatic personality, for example a prophet or healer. During the colonial period, the emergence of these churches was seen as a reaction against colonialism and missionary denominationalism. They were seen as seeking political, social, economic, cultural and religious liberation.7 These churches basically are religious movements, which(in the context of rapid cultural and social change(provide security, fellowship and spiritual guidance to their members.
In Kenya about 25 percent of all Christians belong to African instituted churches. There are mainly two broad categories of African instituted churches. The first category is called the nationalist, also called the Ethiopian type of church. These churches separated from the former mission churches at different times between 1929–1950 and were characterised by a desire to be independent from mission control. They were also linked to the rise of African nationalism. They emphasized political and ecclesiastical liberation and Black self-determination. They also advocated better education for Africans and respect of cultural values. Examples of such churches are the African Independent Pentecostal Church of Africa , the African Christian Churches and Schools, the Church of Christ in Africa and the African Brotherhood Church.
The other type of African instituted churches in Kenya which can be said to be indigenous, are the Spirit churches. They are referred to as Zionist in South Africa or Aladura in Nigeria. These churches emerged at varying periods between the 1920s and 1940s. The founders felt led by the Holy Spirit to found churches and a way of worship that was Biblical and compatible with the African world view. Hence, they emphasize manifestations of the Holy Spirit in estatic phenomena, like speaking in tongues, exorcisms, dreams, visions and healing. While the nationalist churches adopted the organisational structure, liturgy and theology of their "mother churches," spirit churches are more spontaneous in their life and ministry and are claimed to be under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. In most cases, their origin is traced to a charismatic personality, who on account of his/her powers to heal, detect witchcraft and address social evils, was able to attract a large following.
These churches continue to grow and one of their persistent features is their overt concern with healing The power of the founder, and other leaders with special gifts as either prayer-leaders, prayer-healers, prophets/prophetesses, etc. is felt even by a casual visitor to these churches. Examples of spirit type churches are: the Akorino churches of Central Kenya, the Jerusalem Church of Christ, the Nabii Christian Church of Kenya, the Africa Israel Church Nineveh, the African Church of the Holy Spirit and Legio Maria of Africa.
In analysing the use of power in these churches, we shall look at their administration or rule as depicted in their organisational structure, as well as their charismatic power as depicted in healing.
The Use of Power in African Instituted Churches Organisational Structure
African instituted churches have been described as "church tribes." Although they are to be found in both rural and urban areas and have shown the capacity to transcend ethnic and national borders, they still cling to the traditional patterns of social organisation. They are attracted to the idea of kinship groups, but broadly defined not only to include those of similar cultural backgrounds, but those who have made the new faith of Christianity their own.
The organisational structure is informed by Biblical notions, by ideas taken from the mainline churches from which the founders have broken away and by African tradition. In the spirit or prophetic churches, charismatic authority also plays a very important role in organisation.
Thus observers frequently refer to the parallels between traditional and African instituted church leadership. Sundkler remarked on the imprint of Zulu monarchy on many African instituted churches in South Africa. The leader, whether bishop, overseer, or president, is like a king, a chief or an elder and the church members are his/her subjects. In their attempt at establishing an indigenously accepted form of leadership in rural communities, it is not surprising that traditional authority structures would provide the African instituted church leaders with a model.
In the Musama Disco Christo Church of Ghana, the Church's structure is a replica of the Akan state structure, based on war organisation. The head prophet of the church bears the title Nana which is used by Akan kings and chiefs. The leader as "king" has his own right wing and left wing chiefs, rear guard, scouts, advance guards, etc. Just like an Akan king, he has his own regalia including umbrellas, swords, palanquins, linguistic staff, drummers, horn blowers etc. His wife is a typical Akan queen mother with her own court officials and regalia just like in Akan tradition. The office of the head of the church is hereditary although other positions are through appointments and promotions. The position of the queen mother is also very important and is hereditary. In this church, therefore, the head is held in awe and is accorded the respect of a traditional leader.8 His authority is absolute, although he is expected to act justly and fairly.
Among the Zion Christian Church of Zimbabwe, the Archbishop resembles a traditional chief. The council of each individual congregation corresponds to the village court. Even Zion City, the headquarters of the church resembles the old Rozvi headquarters at Zimbabwe in that it is primarily a religious centre with its sacred areas surrounded by administrative royal and other buildings.9
In the spirit/prophetic/zionist churches like the Africa Israel Church Nineveh and Legio Maria Africa, leaders claim direct contact with the supernatural by means of dreams, visions, speaking in tongues, etc.This is in opposition to the Ethiopia type of leader who generally does not make such a claim. In the Jerusalem Church of Christ (Kenya) the prophetess/founder Mary Akatsa calls herself Jesus' messenger, an intermediary between the people and God. Her followers see her as possessing extraordinary supernatural powers that enable her to detect evildoers, heal the sick and the suffering and to foresee the future. Even her birth, like that of many prophetic founders, was said to be surrounded by mystery, indicating her being chosen by God for a special mission: to call others to repentance and to heal the sick. She is very knowledgeableabout Luhya traditional morality and culture but also gained leadership qualities and knowledge in terms of organisation from her former membership in the Pentecostal Assemblies of God and the Church of Bethlehem East Africa. She is credited with being able to discern culturally related illnesses; for example, those caused by witchcraft, being haunted by ancestral evil spirits, etc. People from all walks of life flock to her church for they believe in her powers. These powers lead to the popularity of the church.
Mary says her church is a family and in fact members call her "Mummy." She is regarded with awe and even fear because of her alleged powers. In fact, she even disciplines members physically leading to their humilation in public. There are therefore those who have left the church in bitterness and it is not surprising that Mary sees herself as an object of envy and of malicious scheming by her enemies. All power is vested in her: services and cures are all dominated by her presence. There does not seem to be actual delegation of powers, though the church has an administrative and organisational structure similar to that of the Pentecostal Assemblies of God and other spirit churches from Western Kenya.
Among the Legio Maria Africa and the Nazareth Baptist Church of Isaiah Shembe (among the Zulu in South Africa) the founders are regarded as Messiah, Saviour and Intercessors. The Legio followers saw their founder/leader, Simeon Ondeto, as a son of God and Messiah. In fact, when he died, he was expected to be resurrected after three days.
Scholars have observed that in these churches the "Black Messiah" risks taking the place of Jesus Christ. Isaiah Shembe, for example, is regarded as guarding the gates of heaven. These leaders still influence the church after their death and reveal themselves to adherents in dreams and visions. They play the role of ancestral spirits in traditional African religion, guiding and admonishing the living from the spirit world. Living charismatic leaders like Mary Akatsa are also greatly revered. They settle disputes among members, provide pastoral care and even meet physical needs of the members. Their homes are open throughout to all in need.
In urban areas, African instituted churches are extensions of rural congregations. The links with rural traditions are still very strong. Consequently, traditional structures of authority as well as Biblical and charismatic structures coexist. In fact, one can clearly distinguish those with charismatic authority. There thus may exist two types of leadership. One is hierarchical and deals with administrative matters while the other is charismatic, and consists of prophets, healers and others with special gifts. The administrators are elected but charismatic leaders are supposedly appointed by the Holy Spirit. Since the authority of a charismatic leaders is meant to be sanctioned by God, it is not unusual to see such a leader going into excesses in terms of conduct and lack of charity. A leader with judicial authority can easily be disciplined since structures are in place to deal with his/her excesses, but a charismatic leader cannot.
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